In this series, I dig a little deeper into the meaning of psychological terms. This week’s term is operant conditioning.
Operant conditioning relates to the way actions are affected by stimuli from the environment. The concept was developed by B.F. Skinner in the 1930’s, and builds on Pavlov’s classical conditioning experiments in which dogs were observed to salivate in response to the conditioned stimulus, i.e. a bell.
Types of behavioural responses
Operant conditioning uses rewards and punishments to influence behaviour. There are 5 different types of responses to behaviours, and the terminology can be a bit counterintuitive:
- Positive reinforcement: a reward is given, with the aim of increasing the frequency of the behaviour
- Negative reinforcement: an unpleasant stimulus is removed, with the aim of increasing the frequency of the behaviour
- Positive punishment: an unpleasant stimulus is applied, with the aim of decreasing the frequency of the behaviour
- Negative punishment: something positive is withdrawn, with the aim of decreasing the frequency of the behaviour
- Extinction: a behaviour that was previously reinforced is no longer given reinforcement, and eventually the associated behaviour no longer occurs
How effective is operant conditioning?
Various factors can influence how effective these conditioning strategies are, including the timing and consistency with respect to the behaviour. Operant conditioning can get quite complex, involving chains of different behaviours. Praise is very effective as a positive reinforcer.
According to Wikipedia, some research has shown that a conditioned stimulus leads to the release of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine and dopamine. Individuals with Parkinson’s disease (which affects the dopamine/acetylcholine balance) respond differently to reinforcers and aversive stimuli depending on whether or not they’re taking their medication.
How it’s applicable
Operant conditioning is the foundation of Applied Behavioural Analysis (ABA), which is best known for its use with children who are on the autism spectrum. This approach is controversial and many autism advocates have challenged it as a misguided attempt to “cure” autism.
There are various overtly harmful applications of operant conditioning. It can be a tool for psychological manipulation, and the intermittent use of reward and punishment can be especially damaging in this sort of abuse. This pattern can occur in trauma bonding. Partial or intermittent negative reinforcement in the workplace can contribute to a climate of fear.
Awareness of the basic principles of reinforcement and punishment can help us to understand how our responses to the behaviour of others can affect future repetition of that behaviour.
My own experience
Once while doing a night shift at the concurrent disorders program where I work, and a client was clomping up and down the hall like an elephant. &I told him that he needed to stop. He was openly defiant and kept on pacing.
The next day, a counsellor working with him told him that it’s okay, he can pace as much as he feels he needs to. The problem is, from an operant conditioning perspective, she was not only giving positive reinforcement (in the form of praise) to the pacing, she was also positively reinforcing the defiance, making it more likely that the behaviour will be to continue.
Clearly, there are ethical issues that can arise from trying to use operant conditioning to manipulate someone. However, if we’re not aware of the impact of our reactions then we’re not doing anyone any favours.
Do you have any thoughts on whether this kind of conditioning is useful or problematic?
Source: Wikipedia: Operant conditioning
The Psychology Corner has an overview of terms covered in the What Is… series, along with a collection of scientifically validated psychological tests.
Ashley L. Peterson
BScPharm BSN MPN
Ashley is a former mental health nurse and pharmacist and the author of four books.